BURSA, TURKEY

7 km north of Bursa, a city which has been a stage of settlement for 5,000 years, and 2.5 km south of the Demirtaş region, we find the Demirtaş Tumulus, with a diameter of 90 metres and a height of 5 metres found here were pottery sherds of bowls, jars and jugs, all generally handmade, with a few made with use of a wheel. These pieces date back to the Early Bronze Age, ca. 2500B.C.

The dimensions of the "Çayırköy Tumulus", located 14 km west of the city and l km southwest of the village Çayırköyü, are identical to those of Demirtaş Tumulus. The dominant colours of the ceramic found here are grey, red, grey-brown and black. An important part of the ceramics found were handmade, although the wheel was used for some of the pieces. The oldest finds here dates back to 2700 B.C.

Unable to defend themselves against the Scythian invasions, the Bithynians and their relatives the Tnynians living on the shores of the river Strumon in Thrace migrated to northwestern Anatolia in the VIIth century BC and remained in this area settled by mankind for over 5,000 years. They named this fertile land Bithynia. Although the Bithynians extended their territories rapidly, they could not escape domination by the Lydians, who possessed a strong army. in 546 B.C. the Lydian ruler Croesus was defeated by the Persian armies, and the region fell under the rule of the Persian Empire until 453 B.C.

The domination of the region by Alexander Great lasted from 325 B.C. until the emperor's death. Following the death of Alexander, Bithynia and Asia Minor were distributed among the military commanders and fell under the administration of Antigonos. But the struggle between Alexander's commanders continued and the Bithynian Kingdom took advantage of this chance. The Bithynian ruler Doidalses developed an independent Kingdom in the region. Under the rule of Zipoites (327-279 B.C.), the Kingdom was recognized and respected by its neighbors. During the rule of Zipoites' son Nikomedes I (279-250 B.C.), the Kingdom was enlarged and became the most respected Kingdom of Asia Minor.

During the years 278-277 B.C., the Galats, advancing in three branches from Middle Europe, entered western Anatolia and invaded and pillaged every settlement they came across. Following these invasions, various city-states were formed in Anatolia. After this tremor, Ziaelas (192-146 B.C.), Nikomedes II (146-92 B.C.), Nikomedes III (92-75 B.C.) and Nikomedes IV (75-74 B.C.) ruled the country. Nikomedes II made treaties with the King of Pontus, Mithridates, against the Roman Empire in the west. But Nikomedes III, who succeeded his father, did the opposite, fo the Kingdom of Pontus. Although the outcome of the conflict was not in Nikomedes' favour, he was able to sustain his independence thanks to the support of the Roman Empire. Nikomedes IV, who succeeded him at his death, turned over his lands to the Roman Empire in 74 B.C.. Thus, the Bythinian Kingdom became a province of the Empire. Pliny, who was appointed during the reign of Emperor Domitian, was promoted to governor during the reign of Emperor Traianus. After seizing the sovereignty over the region, he commenced the re-building of the cities. Nevertheless, the cities of Nicaea (İznik) and Nikomedia (İzmit) profited more from these activities than Prusa, where only one bathhouse was rebuilt. Ancient sources name Prusias I (232-192 B.C.) as the founder of today's Bursa. The Carthaginian King Hannibal, upon losing his battle against the Roman Empire, took refuge at the court of Prusias I with his army. Here, he is met as a victorious commander and respected as such. in return, Hannibal and his soldiers built a city. He named the city Prusias and presented it to the king. The city, which was surrounded by a fort when it was founded, was not bigger than a single neighborhood today. Very important documents dating back to the 2nd century B.C. were found within a tumulus belonging to the Bythinian Kingdom era.

During the Roman Empire period, the city was called Uludağ's Bursa, Prusa ad Olympium, and a marble statue of a woman and an osteotheque belonging to the period was found. During the reign of Emperor Justinianus (527-565), new bathhouses were built in Pythia (Çekirge), in 1935, vaulted chambers were discovered in the fort. Within the fort, early Byzantine floor mosaics found in Yer Kapı are among the most important archaeologic remains. Between the years 1204 and 1261, Prusa (Bursa) continued its existence as an undistinguished city under the feudality of Nicaea (iznik). Today, the richest Byzantine gravestone stele and other architectural works of art, ceramics and coins are exhibited in the Bursa Archaeological Museum.

NEVŞEHİR, TURKEY

In the mythology of the Hittites and the Phrygians, the region of Nevşehir lies on the planet of Cappadocia, whose creation was the work of the Gods of the Volcanoes and which was shaped by the soft and  magical hands  of  the  Gods  of the  Rains  and the  Winds. Cappadocia represents a site where Nature and History have commingled in the most beautiful fashion in the world. While geographical circumstances created the Fairy Chimneys, human beings in the course of the historical process sculpted the interiors of these Fairy Chimneys to construct their dwellings and churches, which they decorated with frescoes that have survived as witnesses of civilizations thousands of years old.  To preserve this incredible cultural treasury and prevent its capture by others, Thales of Miletus himself divided the Kızılırmağı river (the ancient Halys) into two sections to facilitate the crossing by the forces of the Lydian king to oppose the Persian invading forces. The first scientific calculations in history were also carried out here.  Nevşehir constitutes the capital city of the planet Cappadocia. But, the renown of Cappadocia has so intensified as to extend beyond the nation's boundaries and overwhelm that of Nevşehir itself, which has nearly been forgotten.  Here, therefore, we hope to conduct a complete survey of the historical and cultural aspect of the Nevşehir area.
The natural beauties and cultural wealth in the environs of Avanos, Zelye and Göreme have attracted the attention of historical writers and travelers for centuries.  Historically, Cappadocia was first known as “Katpatuka” in the Persian period, signifying a region where fine horses were bred. It has not yet been resolved whether the word is of Hatti, Luwian, Hittite or Assyrian origin.  Surviving documents make mention of horses and horse- breeding in this area. During the Great Kingdom period (1460-1190 B.C.), the  Hittites  assigned  great importance to  horses  and  horsebreeding. Correspondingly, they imported expert horsebreeders from the land of the Mitanni and transmitted their expertise to future generations by inscribing their words on clay tablets. As evidence, we might refer to a work written by a young Mitanni horsebreeding specialist named Kikkuli, which has been recovered from the contemporary Boğazköy state archives.
Precious histories have survived from the pens of Xenophon (401 B.C.), Strabon of Amasya (18 A.D.), Gregoir of Nissa (334-94 A.D.) and a young vineyard keeper of Machan (now, Göreme) (495-515 A.D.).  Paul Lucas, appointed by the French Royal Court to travel in the countries of the Mediterranean, was the first observer of the modern period to acquaint Europeans with this fascinating area.
On his way from Ankara to Kayseri in the month of August 1705, Paul Lucas, who had been commanded by the French king Louis XIV to conduct research in the countries of the East, was astonished upon his arrival in the vicinity of Avanos and Ürgüp. The geologzcal structure-which closely resembles a fairytale land the curious spatial units of rock in which the inhabitants dwelled, the churches and the colorful world of their interiors left him in a state of amazement.
After Lucas returned home, he published his notes in a two-volume book of travels in Paris in 1712.  Describing his observations in the Cappadocian region, he produced a rather fanciful description heightened by his imagnation, thus: “...When I first came upon the ancient structural ruins lying on the opposite bank of the Kızılırmak, I fell into a state of utter bewilderment.  Here stood countless-heretofore unknown-pyramidal formations.... Each of these formations possessed a beautiful door, a charming staircase by which to gain entrance and large windows in all the rooms to secure illu- mination.  Within a single rock mass had been hewn a number of living quarters, each lying one above the other.... They numbered not several hundreds, but more than a couple of thousand.  At first, I assumed that these pyramids represented dwellings that had formerly belonged to monks. For their shapes recalled that of ecclesiastical caps.  Afterwards, however, I detected that they possessed a variety of forms.”
On his second journey through the region in 1714, he characterized the Fairy Chimneys as the “ancient cemetery of a vanished city.” This prompted a great scandal in the court of King Louis XIV. The members of the Court were convinced that Paul Lucas was a pathological liar (mithmom,anie); in fact, the French ambassador in Istanbul asserted that he wanted to make a personal investigation of the region to determine whether or not Paul Lucas was telling the truth.  Comte Desalleurs confirmed that the facts of the cir- cumstances were true and that pyramidal shaped entities existed. When the  book of travels was published it aroused a great public debate in Europe. Ürgüp and vicinity, which were shown in the engravings, represented quite a remote locale for the Europe of that day. Moreover, the information supplied by Lucas was not supported by ancient sources on this subject.  The fantastic depiction furnished by Lucas was very tantalizing to the West, but for some it was beyond belief and greeted with incredulity.  The German writer, C.M. Wieland (1753-1814) expressed such criticism, as follows: “It is impossible to give credence to the claim that such a great number of houses in the shape of pyramids exists when the subject is not given the slight- est notice by any of the ancient writers or travel books.”
A more realistic description of Ürgüp and Göreme was provided by the French traveler Charles Texier who visited the region some one hundred fiftyyears after Lucas. This well-known architect, who was assigned by the French government the task of conducting research in Anatolia, examined the Cappadocia region in a painstaking manner in the course of his journeys undertaken in 1833 and 1837. Publishing the results of his travels and research in Anatolia in a monumental, six-volume work titled Description, de l’Asie Mineure, which included engravings and plans, he states at one point that “...Nature had never displayed herself to the foreign observer’s eye in such an extraordinary fashion. I have never heard of a more long-lived and dream-like natural phenomenon in any other region of the world.”
European  travelers  after  Lucas  in the  nineteenth  century  came to Cappadocia to conduct studies of a scientific nature; yet, they were unable to disguise their astonishment upon their encounters with this bizarre geology. The English traveler W.F. Ainsworth recounts the surreal appearance of the volcanic valley, thus:  “After crossing a valley that extends the length of the river, we suddenly found ourselves in a forest composed of rocks of conical and columnar form which surrounded us in an utterly bewildering manner.  It was as if we were touring the ruins of some very ancient and vast city.  Some of the cones carried on their peaks large and randomly shaped fragments of rock.”
In July 1837, W.J. Hamilton, a prominent English geologist, arrived in the area and, lending support to Texier’s view, agreed that “Words fail one in attempting to describe the appearance of this extraordinary locale.”  The leading Prussian field marshal Moltke, who visited Ürgüp on his way from Nevşehir to Kayseri, noted the characteristic tissue of the region by stating that “An ancient citadel perched on a rocky cliff, which rose up perpendicularly and into which a number of caves had been hewn in a peculiar manner, overlooked the town.  The houses of Ürgüp were of stone and constructed in a most elegant manner.... The mountain valley lying behind Ürgüp was covered with vineyards and cleft by deep ravines.  On their slopes stand fantastic castles such as are depicted on old wallpaper.”
Fuller information concerning the rock churches appeared in the work titled Description de l’Asie Mineure, which Texier published in 1862. In the volume he published jointly with the English architect R.P. Pullan in 1864 on Byzantine architecture, the rock churches of Ürgüp and environs are thoroughly discussed. The Englishman W.J. Hamilton expressed his amazement by exclaiming that “Words are inadequate to describe the appearance of this extraordinary place.”  Scientific studies and publications began in the late nineteenth century. Physical analyses of the Cappadocian region and the utilization of historical sources were executed by scientists,  such as A.D. Mordtmann, W.M. Ramsey, J.R.S. Sterret and Charles Texier. The monumen- tal work published by G. de Jerphanion between the years 1907-12 was the first extensive art historical study to examine in a systematic rrianner the rock churches, monasteries and the wall frescoes on their interiors.  In 1958, the French Nicole Thierry and Catherine Jolivet published those churches excluded from the study by the priest Jerphanion, thereby assisting in endowing Cappadocia with its present-day renown.
Earliest Evidence Of Human Habitation In The Region
Though paleolithic remains can be identified in the area, this cultural phase occurs fairly late and possibly represents the last paleolithic era.  In any case, this is supported by all the data that has been thus far recovered. The reason may be that the Würm glacier covered the Anatolian plateau for iong ages and that the eruption of volcanoes, in particular, would have made human occupation impossible.  Yet, despite the absence of evidence, it is undeniable that the valleys of the Cappadocian region where the river banks and sources of fresh water are abundant offered extremely favorable living conditions for early human settlement.  It should not be an error to assume that tufa represented a warm habitation space for human life, because it could usually be easily worked-by obsidian, for example, a much harder stone-without the need for metal. The rocky heights along the sides of the valley were also obviously appropriate for protective purposes.  We know that for hundreds of thousands of years human communities maintained their existence by gathering fruit and hunting and fishing and that they settled along river banks because of their critical dependence on water. In this respect, the Kızılırmak river undoubtedly served an historical function.  The lack of confirming evidence for these events is a consequence of living nature in Cappadocia; over time, successive communities reworked the traces they encountered, and each resettlement effaced and obliterated the older imprints.  This has made it very difficult and even impossible to date the spatial volumes in the rocks of Cappadocia.
Near Gelveri, in addition to the notable settlements and artefacts of Hittite origin, which bear a prehistoric connection to Continental European cultures, English archeologists have recovered paleolithic and neolithic stone tools at Avla Tepesi, eight kilometers southeast of Ürgüp.  Similarly, the British Archeological Institute of Ankara discovered quite interesting finds in a study of prehistoric sites conducted between 1964-66.  The results of this surface field research headed by Ian Todd identified a nıimber of settlement sites-the earliest of which was Neolithic-most of which were in the Nevşehir and Niğde areas.  The towns of İğdeli Çeşme, Acıgöl and Tatlar, which lie within the provincial boundaries of Nevşehir, are a few of the sites that witnessed very large Neolithic era settlements. The excavations of Acemtumulus being conducted at Yeşilova near Tuz Gölü (at Tat), which lies 18 kilometers northwest of the town of Aksaray, are of prime interest. The finds from the dig can be assigned dates ranging from the late fourth to the mid-seventh centuries. A settlement with houses arranged in a regular fashion has come to light beneath Byzantine structures. The artefacts suggest that this was an undefended settlement occupied with agricultural cultivation. The level (Level 3) postdating the Byzantine settlement, which is no doubt Roman, produced pottery of Hellenistic character and may be dated to the first century B.C.-first century A.D. The cultural stratum of approximately four meters that lies beneath this level is also associated with the Hellenistic period.  These settlements, which comprise four structural levels, all exhibit evidence of fire and earthquakes. Level 4 settlement was terminated by a violent fire.  Level 5 preserves the terror of earthquake with the remains of two elderly persons in tortured postures, caught in the act of attempting to protect themselves from the onslaught. The twisted bodies of two youths were found in Level 7 which had been leveled by fire.  After Level 8, houses of megaron make their appearance. A wall of sundried brick was uncovered in Level 16, which had been laid on a terrace of fill. Level 17, dated to 600-500 B.C., contained burnished red earthenware with geometric motifs.  Cultural artefacts of the Hittites and the Early Bronze age occurred in Levels 19-24. City wall fragments exhibiting a simple technique and pots of Hittite style were recovered from Levels 19, 20 and 22. Remains of the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze ages up to 4,000 B.C. were common. The excavations begyun in 1968 in the vicinity of the Hacıbektaş tumulus (Sulucakara tumulus), which contains relics dated to the Early through Middle  Hittite  periods  and the  Phrygian, Roman, Late  Roman  and Byzantine periods. Those undertaken in 1967 by the Italians at the tumulus of Topaklı have brought to light settlements from the Early Bronze age to the Byzantine period in 24 structural strata. These furnish proof that the Nevşehir region is a very ancient site of human habitation.
Here, commercial and associated relations among the settlement units emerged to meet the essential needs connected with the transition to sedentary life; communities that possessed and produced the basic materials and commodities for which deıxıand was expressed became leading centers in every era.  At the close of the Early Bronze age (3200-1950 B.C.), Assyrian merchants termed the region within the Kızılırmak crescent the “Land of the Hatti.” Assyrian city merchants in northern Mesopotamia established a widespread and active commercial network in Central Anatolia (1950-1750 B.C.). The names of nine major trading centers and hundreds of small cities appear in the hundreds of records of commercial correspondence made of baked clay that have survived;  among these is the name of Nenessa. Furthermore, one of the natural main routes that linked Aksaray and Kayseri followed the banks of the Kızılırmak river.  Evidence confirms the existence of settlement during the Hittite era. The Assyrian tablets, however, furnish valuable data on Avanos, which today is located within the province of Nevşehir; we are therefore enabled to acquire information about the Nevşehir region by tracing the history of Avanos.
J.C. Gardin and P. Garelli reported in the early nineteenth century that investigation of the commercial routes of the Assyrians had revealed that their terminal points lay as far as the environs of Incesu, Aksaray, Konya, Bor, Niğde and Ereğli and that Nenessa and Washania were situated within the boundaries of this region.  Moreover, tablets inform us that two mer-chants who could travel from Kanesh (Kayseri, Kültepe) to Burushhattum (Acemtumulus) in four days commonly passed through Washania, Nenessa and Ullama.  In 1926, the linguist Emile Forrer deciphered the name “Zu- Wynassa” on one of the tablets in the course of his research in the Boğazköy Hittite Royal archives.  Zu-Winassa, the Hittite name, most likely corresponded to Nenassa, as it was known in the Assyrian language. Nenessa (or, St. Vanot, as noted by Gregoir of Nissa) was transformed, according to the research of N. Thierry, to Venessa and Avanos. In Ottoman records, Avanos is called, alternatively, “Enes,” “Uvenez” or “Evenez.”
Around the year 2000 B.C., city states make their appearance in central Anatolia. During this era, the Hittites established their rule ca. 1750 B.C. when they arrived in Central Anatolia, the land of the Hatti. In roughly f   1200 B.C., the tribes who came from Thrace and the Mediterranean-Aegean E   tribes who appear in the legends of Homer as the destroyers of Troy put an G  end to the Hittite empire: Following this invasion, Anatolia entered an age of darkness that lasted for four hundred years, and it became subject to the Phrygians.
Around 800 B.C., we witness the reappearance in the region of the Hittite kingdom of Tabal. The Tabal kingdom, which achieved fame for its horsebreeding, fell in the mideighth century B.C. The center of this kingdom was Ttıvanna (Tiana-Kemerhisar)  near Bor.  The  first  settlers  in the Cappadocian region were the Hatti, the Luwians and the Hittites.  The Assyrians founded a trading colony in this region between the close of the third millennium B.C. and the beginning of the second millennium B.C which is known as the age of the Assyrian trading colony.  The cuneiform tablets in Assyrian that were discovered at Kültepe (Kanesh) known as the Cappadocian tablets (early second millennium B.C.) are the first written records of Anatolia. Study of the tablets and decipherment of the langauge has revealed that they were produced by Assyrian merchants. These tablets, which shed light on the social and political life of the period, are essentially commercial and economic agreements. These records inform us that at this time small dynasties and principalities existed in Central Anatolia, which were the that the local king independent of a central out hority. They indica doms held sway over small areas and that they maintained a peaceful existence.
Kanesh (Kültepe), the most prominent city of the period, was the center of trading activity in Anatolia.  Expanding greatly in the second half of the ninth centuıy B.C., the Tabal kingdom assumed total control over the region. Confirmation of this situation is gained from the hieroglyphic rock inscriptions occurring at Hacıbektaş-Karaburna, Topada (Acıgöl), Gülşehir-Sıvasa (Gökçetoprak). The region, which had formed the nucleus of the Hittite empire, subsequently came under the hegemony of the Phrygians and the  Persians.   Invasions  of  the  region were  conducted by the Cimmerians and the Scythians and, after 700 B.C., were incorporated into the empires of the Lydians, the Medes and the Persians, respectively. After the sixth century, Nevşehir and the surrounding area came under the rule of the Lydians. In the mid-sixth century, the Lydian king Croesus crossed the Kızılırmak in an attempt to halt the Persians (575-46 B.C.). Thales of Miletus discovered for King Croesus a solution to the problem of crossing the Kızılırmak river. The historian Herodotus relates the following: “At that time Thales, who happened to be present at the bivouac, had a deep trench dug that led toward the upper edge of the bivouac site in a semi-circular form; thus, the river flowed from its normal bed to the trench and, after meandering through the area in the opposite direction, it once again returned to its original bed.  Now, once it had been divided into two streams, it was a simpler matter to cross the river.”  After the defeat of croesus in this battle, the regxon came into the hands of the Persians (Achaemenads). The Persians did not compel the populace to migrate. But, they left the administration of the great land holdings in the hands of the military elite of Persian origin and the local religious leaders. Here, a fusion occurred between the local culture and the Persian culture.  Herodotus describes the Persian cultural structure, as follows: “They do not know how to make religious icons, temples and altars; they slaughter their sacrifices on the tops of mountains, and what they call Zeus is the divine dome of the sky. They dedicate their sacrifices to the sun, the moon, the earth, the fire, the water and the wind.” The fire-worshipping cult of the Persians became particularly important in the Cappadocian region; the volcanic peak Argaios (Mount Erciyes) was especially convenient for this cult.  The Persian gods, unlike the gods of other religions, had no true temples of worship. Instead, certain grounds were sacred to them; these holy sites were scattered throughout the region, with which were associated numerous fire temples. Greek writers called these sacred gröunds “Pirhethee” and their priests “Piree,” that is, “those who make fires.” In the Zend language these priests were called “Atharvan,” or fire priests.  Fire temples were situated on elevated terrain within the sacred grounds and consisted in a stone niche covered with coals that burned continuously.  The Atharvan (Magian priest) wore a long, white robes and, on their heads, wool caps whose peaks fell level with the mouth; each day they would enter the holy gTounds with a bunch of branches and sing hymns for about an hour at the base of the fire temple. On occasion they would offer libations as sacrifices or they would slaughter an animal.  The one who offered the sacrifice would employ a heavy, wooden hammer for this task, for the “use of iron was strictly forbidden....” The most sacred of the holy grounds in Cappadocia were called in Persian “Zela” (Zile).  Professor Emeritus Günaltay specifically reminds us that Strabon reports that the Zela sacred grounds were consecrated to the three most popular gods, whose names were Anaitis, Omanos and Anadates. The Persian beliefs associated with fire worship were rapidly adopted by the Cappadocians.  The Persians were fortunate in their encounter with a perfect geography to contribute support their tenets.  The region, where fires and volcanoes were common formed an ideal terrain for these beliefs. Historians report that temples devoted to fire gods were in existence until the fourth century A.D.
Under Persian rule, the region began to be known as “Cappadocia,” and a Cappadocian satrapy was established.  In the Persian period, animal husbandry was quite developed in Cappadocia, and it is known that the Persians received their tax payment of 360 talents in kind, in the form of  1,500 horses, 2,000 mules and 50,000 sheep. In contrast to the commercial  and money economy in effect in the coastal regions, a landlocked commerce held sway in the interior. The Persian state, whose economic oppor- tunities remained  constricted,  gradually lost power. Prof.  Emeritus Gunaltay has asserted that “During the conquest of Iran, fertile lands were granted to the elite while the villagers were reduced to the position of serfs bound to the soil.  When the Persian nobility lost their wealth through extravagant entertainments, elaborate chases and a superficial life, they would sell their villagers to Greek or Roman slave traders. Only the slaves (serfs) that served in the fire temples were exempt from sale.Such events provide sufficient information as to why the Mesopotamian culture of the era of the Kültepe tablets completely vanished.  Because of such social tragedies, the Cappadocians no longer recalled their national traditions and, therefore, came to submit to the influence of Ionian culture.
Young Alexander, the king of Macedonia, produced the collapse of the great Persian empire through a series of victories over its armies in 334 B.C. and 331  B.C. This  peace  was  broken  by the  Eastern  campaign  of  the Macedonian, Alexander the Great (333-23 B.C.), and an ongoing series of wars was pursued by Alexander's generals and their descendants. Our earliest historical knowledge indicates that Avanos was founded in the year 332 B.C. by a lieutenant of Alexander named Eumenes. The Alexandran era was followed by the establishment of a Cappadocian kingdom, whose capital was located in Kayseri (Mazaka). The Cappadocian throne at Mazaka changed hands several times.In addition to the constant turnover of political powers,the inhabitants of Cappadocia had become exhausted by the attacks and pillaging by the invaders of the region. Following the transformation from an empire to a republic by Rome, Cappadocia became increasingly subject to oppression.  Rulers were unable to advance beyond acting as a satellite of Rome.  Cappadocia became a Roman province in Asia in 17 A.D.  During this period, because of the poverty in which Cappadocia had fallen, the Roman emperor Tiberius was forced to lighten the oppressive tax burden on the region.  The following year, a Roman governor (legat) was appointed to Cappadocia.  As Strabon relates (18 A.D.), Avanos had now become a very wealthy and developed city. Avanos (Venessa) was the most important of the three prominent cities of the region. Avanos, after Kayseri, as a religious center was second in size and significance and the third largest political administrative center of the state, after Kayseri and Comano Because the chief priest was third most eminent functionary in the kingdom's hierarchy, he had an income of 3,000 heradul and 15 talents (the equivalent of 500 kilograms of silver at the current exchange rate). The servant Euphrates also informs us that there was a well-established and powerful aristocracy in Venessa. The most fascinating information on Avanos is contained in the writings of monks.
The first of these is Gregoir of Nissa (334-94 A.D.) who, in his letter to hisfriend Adelphois, thanks him for the hospitality he displayed to him at his villa when he was passing through Venessa; the villa was apparently the most luxurious of those in the capital. According to the letter, Venessa is a very developed city provided with all the amenities and possesses a splendid monument to martyrs and wonderful fruit orchards and vineyards from which high quality wine is produced. This letter by Gregoir of Nyssa is the only extant record describing Avanos in antiquity. His letter goes on to relate that “...It is difficult to find words to describe the beauties of Avanos One must see it with one's own eyes... I have visited numerous places in  my life and I have heard many things; and every place about whose beauties I have been told I have gone to visit. But, after seeing Avanos, none of them bears any distinction by comparison. Neither the famed Helicon nor v the Isles of Bliss nor the plains of Sission nor Thessaly-all fall short of Avanos. Nature that is fashioned in such an aesthetically pleasing manner as it is here has no equal in the whole world.  One should view the Kızılırmak river (Halys) whose waters of crimson hue flow pass near the feet of shepherds grazing their flocks.  On the opposite bank of the Kızılırmak, the beauty of the intense green of the fruit trees, the flourishing vineyards of extraordinary bounty and the pear blossoms set like pearls is incompara- ble. Rather than natural beauty, it seems to possess the rare and excellent beauty of a painting from the hand of a superior artist.... “He goes on to state that at the entrance to the city stood a church in the process of construction.Though its roof was as yet incomplete, it exhibited a supreme loveliness; the church referred to was very probably, as N. Thierry has suggested, the Dere Yamanlı church.
The official policy of Diocletianus (284-305) in persecution of the Christians had no success. The succeeding period of Constantine I.witnessed a stirring time for religious activity; it was a time when it was regarded as ordinary to believe in a number of cults simultaneously and brought about a phenomenon of  religious  syncretism. Even though  Constantine I accepted Christianity by 312 A.D. at the latest, this should not imply that he turned away from the tradition of idol worshipping. It is known that he continued in his old beliefs and customs, that he was even an adherent of the sun cult and that he offered support and assistance to this cult.  Gregoir of Nissa states in his letter that included in the Christian religious ceremonies existed relics of the ancient polytheist ritual for the worship of Zeus. In fact, the ancient polytheist religious concepts had attained dominance for a time. Unfortunately, however, we do not know how long this theological confusion continued at Avanos, which disturbed Gregoir so much. Incidentally, Gregoir is said to have been baptized on his deathbed.
After the fourth century A.D., we have at hand another letter-this one by Ilieron of Machan (now, Göreme) that may also assist us in tracing the his- tory of Venessa (Avanos).  Neither the Romans nor those who came after- wards (the Byzantines) wished to have the region assimilated into their own culture. Rather, their foremost concerns were maintaining control over the free commercial roads and utilization of  the human potential of the Cappadocian region in the Byzantine army.

Mersin, Turkey

Mersin that an important harbour city at the East Mediterranean shore, offers every possible activities to travellers with streets overshadowed by palms, city park, modern hotels, ruins near the city, numberless beaches. Moreover, the city remembered in history with the name of Saint Paul (he is from Tarsus) and with areas between Alanya and Mersin that was given from Mark Antuanious as a marriage gift to cleopatra. 

Nearly 108 kilometre lengths of Mersin shores composed from naturel beaches. These beaches preferred because of their thin sands and cleanness, and their suitability for underwater hunting. Kulakköy, Taşucu, Susanoğlu, Kuruçay, Lamas, Yemişkumu, Kız Kalesi, Çeşmeli, Ören, Balıkova, İskele, Yenikaş, Ovacık, Büyük Ecelive and Anamur Beaches are some of that beaches. For whom fond of history and archaeology there is Viranşehir (Pomeipolis) which city built on area that area was continuous settlement place since Neolithic Age, and city is an roman city built at Rome Period. 

City was Papacy in Christianity Period, than destroyed by an earthquake in 525. Necropolis (graveyard), theatre, public baths, water canals, temple ruins are exist. Eski (old) Mosque is an important building remains from Ottoman Period (1870). It was restored at different times. Rome Public Bath hosts big amount of visitors with it's interesting mosaics. 

Districts: İçel (center), Anamur, Aydıncık, Bozyazı, Çamlıyayla, Erdemli, Gülnar, Mut, Silifke, Tarsus. 

At the 320 kilometre length coast band of Mersin province that 108 kilometre of them is sanded shores and formed with naturel beaches, is very rich by the means of historical, cultural values. At the Mersin that is settlement place since Neolithic Period, there are lots of archaeological and historical creations remains from calceolithic, Hittite, Rome, Byzantine and Ottoman civilisations. 

The places should be seen and visited in Mersin are listed bellow: 

Tarsus: St. Paul Church, St. Paul Well, Gözlü Kule (tower), Donuk Taş (stone), Ashabı Kehf Cave, Cleopatra Gate, Rome Road are important historical and cultural values of county. 

Mersin: Yumuk Hill and Soli Ruins are places to be seen. 

Anamur: Anamurium Ruins and Mamure Castle are important historical places. 

Aydıncık: 4 columned Monument Tomb would be seen. 

Bozyazı: Arsione, Nagidos and Softa castle are places to be seen. 

Erdemli: Kanlıdivane Ruins, Ayaş, Korikos, Adamkaya Embossments are important historical and cultural values of county. 

Gülnar: Meydancık Castle, Alahan Monastery at Mut, 

Silifke: Cennet-Cehennem Caves, Silifke Castle, Tekir Ambarı, Jupiter Temple, Ayatekla, Holmi Ruin, Silifke Aphrodisia, Uzuncaburç Tower, Olba are most important ones.

ANTALYA, TURKEY

From the findings resulting from the archeological digs carried out in and around Antalya, it has been ascertained that the region was inhabited 50 thousand years ago. The proof was uncovered in the Karain Cave situated near Yagcikoy, 27 km north-west of Antalya. Remains of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Bronze ages were unearthed in this cave.The Hitites, who are believed to have come to Antalya from the Caucasus and Mesopotamia, exercised sovereignty over Antalya during the years 2500-1400 B.C. Historical maps of the region during the years 2000-1400 B.C. show that the Kingdom of the Hitites encompassed Antalya.The tribes which came from Trakya during the 8th and 7th centuries B.C. put an end to the Hitite Civilization, and the city states of Pamphylia, Lycia and Cicilia were founded. Today's province of Antalya entirely covers Pamphylia, while parts overlap into southern Pisidya, western Cicilia and eastern Lycia.While the origins of the people of the region were not precisely known, it is believed they were composed of various groups from Anatolian tribes and a Trakya tribe called Phyrgians. The word "Pamphylia" is of Greek origin and is composed of "pan" meaning many and "phyla" meaning race.In the 9th and 8th centuries B.C. two waves immigrated to Anatolia from Greece resulting in many cities and centers of civilization being established. Today about 100 of these can be found within the boundaries of Antalya.From the 7th century to the year 546 B.C. Antalya was under the sovereignty of the Lydians, when it was replaced by that of the Persians. The Macedonian commander Alexander the Great put an end to this sovereignty in 336, when he conquered all the cities of the region (with the exception of one or two places like Termessos). When Alexander died in 323 B.C., a war which was to last for several years started between his generals and this continued until 188 B.C. At this time the Seleucid King Antiochus 3rd was conquered by the King of Bergama and signed the Apamea peace treaty. The King of Bergama Attalos II (159-138 B.C.) rebuilt the existing city and the one we know today as Antalya came into being. From that time on it has been known successively as Attaleis, Adalia, Adalya and finally Antalya.In 43 A.D. Claudius formed a kingdom uniting Pamphylia and Lycia. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D. Antalya lived its most prosperous period. During the 2nd century A.D., Christianity began to spread in the region. While under the sovereignty of Byzantium and up to the 5th and 6th centuries A.D. Antalya is known to have experienced another phase of development. During these centuries the city overflowed beyond the city walls.In the 7th century A.D. the influence of Moslem Arabs began to make itself felt. The region came under Moslem sovereignty in the year 1085 with the advent of Suleyman Shah, one of the Seljuks of Anatolia. Prior to that, although Antalya was taken by Admiral Karinoglu Fazl in 860 A.D., it shortly thereafter came under the dominion of Byzantium. While in 1103 Antalya was captured by the Byzantine Emperor Alexius Komnenos, it again fell to the Turks shortly thereafter. This change of hands occurred six times. From 1120-1206 Antalya was part of Byzantium. In 1206 Antalya fell to Sultan Gyaseddin Keyhusrev I. Upon his death the Christians again took possession of it, but his son Keykavus succeeded in winning it back in a short time.When the Seljuks became weakened and unable to withstand the pressure exerted by the Ilhanlis, the era of independent "Beyliks" (emirates) began. During this period Antalya remained an independent Beylik for 95 years. From 1308-1426 the Teke Beyleri of the Hamidogullari exercised sovereignty over the region.Existing sources do not agree on when Antalya came under Ottoman sovereignty. According to some, Antalya became part of Turkish soil in 1391 during the reign of Murat I. Some others claim that the region was conquered by Yildirim Beyazit and was presented as a gift to his son, Sultan Murat. Antalya, which remained under Ottoman dominion until the First Word War, was know to be an important port city under the Teke Sancak.Following the First Word War, Antalya was occupied on 29 April 1919 by the Italians. During this occupation every effort was made to avoid clashes between the local inhabitants and the occupying force. During the War of Independence, Antalya and the region supported the war on the western front by manpower and funds. It is known that the Italians assisted the Turks, especially from the point of view of intelligence. In early 1921 the Italians began to withdraw and by 5 July 1921 Antalya was completely free of the Italian occupation.

SİVAS, TURKEY

Situated at an altitude of 1275 m, Sivas is the highest city of the Central Anatolian Region, and the most mountainous one with the numerous peaks. This uneven land has been the shelter of many tribes, from the ages to more recent periods from which remain many notable monuments.


Sivas being at the junction point of the Persia and Baghdad caravan routes, was once a busy commercial center. During the interval between 1142 and 1171, it was the capital of the Turkish Danismend Emirs. Later, under the rule of the Seljuks, it became a cultural center, with importance given to learning and scholarship; and many related buildings were constructed by the remains of some, can still be seen today.


One of the outstanding numerous Seljuk works of art and architecture is Izzeddin Keykavus Sifahanesi, which was "a house of recovery" in those times; in other words "ahospital". It was built in 1217 by the order of the Seljuk Sultan, and its decoration with painted tiles is beautiful.


Gok Medrese (theological school) and Buruciye Medrese, both built in 1271, constitute the best examples of wonderful Seljuk artistic works, while the Ulu Mosque of the Danismend Emirate is another fine historical monument, reflecting a different style. The Cifte Minareli Medrese of the same year, is also noteworthy with its twin minarets rising elegantly on both sides of its ornate portal.


Throughout the long history of the city, the role played by Sivas, during the War of Independence is important in that the National Congress took the decision to fight for the liberalization of Turkey, here, in 1919. The school building used then; is now the Ataturk and Congress Museum; and here, the relevant documents of the congress and war, are on display, together with ethnographical finds and local handicrafts.


165 km southeast of Sivas, is Divrigi, an ancient town, which was once a Byzantine site. By the 12th and 13th centuries, it was the capital of Turkish Mengucek Emirs, and the remains of Ulu Mosque of 1229 and a citadel remain from the period. The Baroque style portal of this magnificent mosque is a real masterpiece of stonework, and this monumental building has been declared by UNESCO to be one of the eminent cultural heritages of the world.


Famous late Turkish folk poet and minstrel Asik Veysel was born in 1894 in Sivrialan village of Sivas. He lost his visual ability at a very young age due to pox but he continued writing and singing until he died in 1973. His house has been restored and opened as a museum in 1982.


Besides its historical treasures, the city possesses several other specialties, one of which is Balikli Kaplica, an interesting spa of the town Kangal. It is a thermal spring, filled with tiny fish living in the hot waters, which provides a different type of cure for skin complaints. It is the only cure center in the world for "Sedef Hastaligi" (psoriasis). Soguk Cermik is another spa center. Hafik, Todurge (Zara), and Gokpinar (Gurun) Lakes are some of the interesting places for picnicking, boating and fishing.


Another special characteristic of this town, 68 km south of Sivas, are the world famous Kangal dogs. These sheep dogs have proven their loyalty and success even in the harshest climates such as in this city, and are confidently used in the area of police and military work.


Sivas is also known for its fine carpets of numerous designs and colors. These locally produced weavings offer a wide variety of choice, and the inherent high quality is not subject to variation.


On March 29, 2006, Total Solar Eclipse was seen from Sivas at 14:06pm local time. Also, you can see some fotograph at this link: http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/sivas_turkey&page=all

MARSEİLLE, FRANCE

Marseille n’est pas seulement la ville la plus âgée de la France - à cause de son important port commercial, elle est aussi appelée « la porte au monde ». Fondée en 600 avant J.- C. par des marins Grecs de Phocée, Marseille est le premier port de la France. Marseille est le siège d’un archevêque, ville d’université et capitale de départements Bouches-du-Rhône. La ville doit son expansion et prospérité à son port, qui est un lieu de transbordement important pour des marchandises destinées pour l’Afrique du Nord et l’Asie. Spécialement le pétrole occupe une position éminente.

1/ Les principaux lieux touristiques

La Canebière

Le centre de la ville vif de Marseille est dominé par la Canebière, un grand boulevard, qui est bordée par des maisons de bureaux et de commerces et des cafés. Aujourd’hui, l’ancienne avenue de luxe, qui est comparée avec les Champs-Élysées à Paris, sépare le pauvre nord de la vie du sud aisé.

Le Vieux Port

Véritable lieu de rassemblement de la cité phocéenne, le Vieux-Port a longtemps été le cœur économique de la ville avant de devenir aujourd'hui le cœur historique. Le "vieux port" est aujourd'hui un port de plaisance, le lieu de rassemblements populaires et l'emblème touristique de Marseille.

Le Boulevard Longchamp

Le boulevard Longchamp avec le palais Longchamp et le Musée Grobet-Labadié fait aussi impression au visiteur. Dans les nombreuses musées, on peut visiter des oeuvres d’ art variétés, comme des tableaux, des caricatures de Honoré Daumier, qui est né à Marseille, ainsi que des sculptures, instruments de musique et beaucoup plus.

Notre-Dame-De-La-Garde

Au sud de Marseille, l’emblème de la ville, la basilique Notre-Dame-de-la-Garde, s’élève sur la ville et le port. La basilique, qui a été construite sur un rocher calcaire était construit au lieu d’une chapelle de pèlerinage médiévale. La vue de la terrasse, qui entoure l’église, sur la ville et ses alentours est exceptionnelle.

Chàteau d'If et les Calanques

Aux environs de Marseille, l’ancienne île de prison « Château d’If » pourrait être plus réputée grâce au « Comte de Monte Christo » par Alexandre Dumas. Les Calanques, qui se trouvent entre Marseille et Cassis, sont une attraction touristique très estimé. Les baies de mer en forme de fjord sont utilisées comme des ports d’yacht, et les parois de rocher présentent un paradis à grimper.

2/ Succès de Marseille : Capitale Européenne de la Culture en 2013

Avoir été désignée Capitale européenne de la culture devant Lyon, Toulouse et Bordeaux n'a pas été le fruit du hasard, mais la conséquence et la consécration de la politique culturelle mise en place par le maire, Jean-Claude Gaudin, à Marseille, depuis 1995.

Aujourd'hui, avec une dépense de 155 euros par habitant, Marseille se situe juste derrière Berlin, la référ­ence en Europe,et démo­ntre, au quotidien, un investissement public fort dans le domaine de la culture et des industries de la connaissance.

Des arts de la rue aux arts plastiques en passant par la théâtre, le cinéma, les musiques de tous horizons ou encore la danse, tous ces champs d'expression artistique sont présents dans la cité phocéenne et souvent au plus haut niveau.

GRENOBLE, FRANCE

Classée 2ème ville de France où il fait bon d’étudier pour 2012-2013 par l’Étudiant, la ville de Grenoble possède de nombreux atouts : offre de formation, rayonnement, ambiance, culture, sport…


Grenoble est l’une des principales métropoles étudiantes en France et constitue le deuxième pôle français de recherche publique, après Paris.
Regroupés au sein du PRES (Pôle de Recherche et d’Enseignement Supérieur) Université de Grenoble, les établissements et universités de l’académie proposent des programmes de formation et de recherche dans tous les domaines.
Pour les 61 000 étudiants, la vie sur les campus est très riche : nombreuses activités associatives, programmation culturelle dédiée, aménagement des espaces, ambiance internationale, la ville dispose de nombreux bars…
Ville la plus plate de France et pourtant entourée par les Massifs du Vercors, de la Chartreuse et de Belledonne, Grenoble offre un visage unique dans l’Hexagone. La ville se situe à moins d’une heure d’une quarantaine de stations de sports d’hiver et séduit tout autant les mordus de ski , de snowboard, de raquette ou de randonnée que les fans de rollers et de vélo !
L’agglomération grenobloise compte plus de 300 km d’itinéraires cyclable

Territoire innovant

Grenoble est l’un des territoires les plus innovants de France grâce à son modèle de développement construit sur un partenariat historique entre l’université, la recherche et l’industrie qui se poursuit aujourd’hui autour de 3 secteurs porteurs :

• les micro-nanotechnologies et les logiciels
• les biotechnologies et les sciences du vivant
• les nouvelles technologies de l’énergie

L’attractivité et la compétitivité de l’écosystème grenoblois reposent sur l’excellence de son pôle scientifique, sur le regroupement en une seule et même place de grands instruments de recherche européens et sur la très forte synergie entre les entreprises et les acteurs de la recherche. Une attractivité et une compétitivité qui se renforcent un peu plus encore aujourd’hui avec l'émergence de GIANT innovation campus, dont Grenoble Ecole de Management est membre fondateur.
Grenoble est aussi riche d’un tissu industriel diversifié où les secteurs traditionnels grenoblois (mécanique, chimie) jouent toujours un rôle prépondérant dans le tissu économique et l’emploi local tout en côtoyant de près des secteurs à la pointe de la technologie porteurs d’emploi et d’avenir.

Grenoble en quelques chiffres :

Population grenobloise

• 156 000 habitants.
• 60% de la population a moins de 40 ans
• 38% de la population non scolarisée de + de 15 ans est titulaire d’un diplôme de niveau bac+2 ou supérieur.
• 73 600 actifs.
• Une des villes française les mieux pourvue en cadres : 25% de la population active.

Recherche et Enseignement supérieur

• 1er pôle de recherche en france après l’Ile de France
• 14 centres de recherche nationaux et internationaux.
• 21 000 chercheurs publics et privés
• 220 laboratoires publics
• 1 emploi sur 6 lié à la recherche
• 1 PRES (Pôle de recherche et d’enseignement supérieur) « Université de Grenoble »
• 62 000 étudiants (dont 14% d’origine étrangère)
• 1 cité scolaire internationale

Entreprises et emplois

• 10 700 établissements dont 120 établissements de plus de 50 salariés.
• Environ 1500 entreprises créées chaque année (taux de création d’activité annuel de 14%).
• 91 800 emplois en 2006 dont 53 100 emplois dans le secteur privé.
• Plus de 8000 emplois créés entre 1999 et 2006.
• Environ 12 000 emplois industriels.
• Tertiaire : 88% du tissu économique grenoblois et 83% des emplois.
• Des emplois qualifiés : 25% d’emplois de cadres.